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| Figure O.1 | Shortfalls in learning start early | |
| Figure O.2 | In several countries the 75th percentile on PISA performs below the 25th percentile of the OECD average | |
| Figure O.3 | Children from poor households in Africa typically learn much less | |
| Figure O.4 | Students often learn little from year to year, and early learning deficits are magnified over time | |
| Figure O.5 | The percentage of primary school students who pass a minimum proficiency threshold is often low | |
| Figure O.6 | School completion is always higher for children from wealthier families and urban settings, whereas gender gaps are more mixed | |
| Figure O.8 | Socioeconomic gaps in cognitive achievement grow with age--even in preschool years | |
| Figure O.9 | In Africa, teachers are often absent from school or from classrooms while at school | |
| Figure O.10 | Management capacity is low in schools in low- and middle-income countries | |
| Figure O.12 | Many countries lack information on learning outcomes | |
| Figure 1.1 | More schooling is systematically associated with higher wages | |
| Figure 1.2 | Mortality rates are lower for adults with more education | |
| Figure 1.3 | People with higher education hold stronger beliefs about the importance of democracy | |
| Figure 1.4 | Learning varies widely across countries; in 6 of the 10 countries assessed only half or less of primary completers can read | |
| Figure 1.5 | What matters for growth is learning | |
| Figure 1.6 | Increasing learning would yield major economic benefits | |
| Figure 2.1 | School enrollments have shot up in developing countries | |
| Figure 2.2 | Most of the world's population with less than a primary education is in South Asia, but rates are similar in Sub-Saharan Africa | |
| Figure 2.3 | National income is correlated with the gap between primary and lower secondary completion rates | |
| Figure 2.4 | Low-income countries are bypassing the historical pattern among high-income countries in which most people were educated at the primary level before coverage extended to secondary | |
| Figure 2.5 | School completion is always higher for children from wealthier families and urban settings, whereas gender gaps are more mixed | |
| Figure 2.6 | Multiple exclusions: Girls from poor households often have the lowest rates of education attainment | |
| Figure 3.1 | Most grade 6 students in West and Central Africa are not sufficiently competent in reading or mathematics
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| Figure 3.2 | Most grade 6 students in southern and East Africa are not sufficiently competent in mathematics, and several countries score poorly in reading as well | |
| Figure 3.3 | Learning outcomes are substantially lower for poor children in Latin America | |
| Figure 3.4 | Learning outcomes vary greatly across countries and economies???in several countries, the 75th percentile on PISA performs below the 25th percentile of the OECD average | |
| Figure 3.5 | High-income countries (HICs) tend to have greater rates of literacy proficiency than middle-income countries | |
| Figure 3.6 | Reading proficiency is low in many parts of the developing world | |
| Figure 3.7 | Family socioeconomic status significantly affects students' average PISA scores | |
| Figure 3.9 | Socioeconomic gaps in cognitive achievement grow with age--even in preschool years | |
| Figure 3.10 | A lot of official teaching time is lost | |
| Figure 3.11 | Staff compensation consumes the vast majority of resources available for public education | |
| Figure 3.12 | Management capacity is low in schools in low- and middle-income countries | |
| Figure 4.1 | No internationally comparable data on learning are available for most children outside of high-income countries | |
| Figure 5.4 | What happens when school fees are eliminated? Evidence from eight countries | |
| Figure 5.5 | Not all education systems are equally productive, but even the least productive deliver some learning to some learners | |
| Figure 5.6 | Young people follow different paths in their education | |
| Figure 5.7 | Workers with higher literacy proficiency are more likely to enter white-collar jobs | |
| Figure 6.1 | Only a small fraction of learners keep up with the curriculum | |
| Figure 6.2 | Prospective engineers typically score higher than prospective teachers on PISA tests | |
| Figure 7.1 | Information and communication technology has had a mixed impact on learning | |
| Figure 7.2 | Schools vary significantly in management quality | |
| Figure 8.1 | Few benefit from workplace training, and those that do tend to already have better literacy or education | |
| Figure 8.2 | Most vocational training students enroll during upper secondary | |
| Figure 9.2 | Simple associations between education spending and learning are weak | |
| Figure 11.1 | Primary school numeracy has increased dramatically in England | |
| Figure 11.3 | Trends in public education spending in the Philippines are associated with changes in the broader political and economic context | |
| Figure 11.4 | Most funding for education comes from domestic sources, but international finance is important for low-income countries | |
| Figure S2.1 | Severe deprivation affects brain structure and function from early on in life | |
| Figure S4.1 | Experimental and quasi-experimental studies of interventions to improve learning have mushroomed in recent decades | |
| Figure S5.1 | Technology use has increased dramatically over the last decade--but remains low in many countries | |
| Figure S6.1 | Governments devote a large share of their budgets to education | |
| Figure S6.2 | The relationship between changes in public education spending and student learning is weak | |
| Box Figure 1.3.1 | There can be a large gap between learning-adjusted and unadjusted years of schooling | |
| Box Figure 3.2.1 | Girls outperform boys on reading in all countries, but boys typically do better in mathematics and science | |
| Box Figure 3.3.1 | Teachers may think a less than full effort is justified | |
| Box Figure 6.3.1 | Mother-tongue instruction could be useful in much of the developing world | |
| Box Figure 9.3.1 | In Bangladesh, there are 11 different kinds of nonstate providers of presecondary education | |
| Box Figure 10.1.1 | Teacher unionization varies across countries | |
| Box Figure 11.5.1 | Reading scores have improved in Chile | |
